Behavioral Sciences: Theories

Table of Contents

Introduction

Classical condition can be referred to the conditioning of the response behavior of a particular stimulus that is supported by a certain unconditional response. On the other had operant conditioning is a learning method that occurs through punishment and rewards of behavior. Neobehaviorism seeks to understand the response and stimulus pattern and also the mediating factors between the response and stimulus. Neobehaviorism acknowledge the significance of understanding elements, which are internal to a person. These theories results in learning. Learning can be referred to that process that leads to potential behavioral change or relatively permanent, behavioral change (Coon, D & Mitterer J 2010). However, they are processes which are quite different. In order to be able to understand how the theories are implemented in learning, it is important to understand what the theories are and how they differ from one another. This paper will discuss the three learning theories including classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and neobehaviorism.

$11. Classical conditioning

Classical conditioning is a type of learning theory that was discovered by Pavlov in the beginning of the twentieth century. Pavlov was able to discover that dogs usually salivate before receiving food when he was studying the digestive process of dogs. After having a repeated pairing of food with the lab attendant, the dog then started to salivate just by the sight of the lab attendant. Pavlov was able to learn that the dog was not just responding to the biological need, which is hunger, but also a need that had been developed through learning. The physiologist spent the whole of his life trying to research why the learning had occurred, which is now referred to as classical conditioning. According to this theory, behaviors are not obtained by conditioned stimulus, but they are emitted (Phillips, C, & Soltis, F. 2004). This means that, they are generated by a person as a way of influencing the surrounding environment that they are in.

Contribution of theorist

In order to experiment the theory, the theorist utilized a meat powder and a tuning fork. In order to do this, he hit the fork and then followed the sound using the meat powder. He represented the sound with the meat powder at the same time increments. During the first period of the process, the dog would only salivate from the meat powder, but after doing this repeatedly, the dog started salivating from the sound of the tuning fork. The dog would continue to salivate at the sound even after the meat powder had been taken off.

Application

Classical conditioning is extremely essential in animal trainers. This theory is usually used by the trainers because of two purposes. The first purpose is to create automatic response like producing or reducing adrenaline without making use of the stimuli that could create the response. The second purpose is to create an association between a stimulus that would have effect on the animal and one that would not (Phillips, C, & Soltis, F. 2004). Animal trainers use this theory because they will associate something which is easy to deliver with something that the animal wants.

Principles

According to the theory of classical conditioning, an organism usually learns to associate one stimulus with another one. The organism is able to learn that the first stimulus is an indication of the second one. The tuning of the fork indicated to the dog that the food was coming. There are different phenomena that are associated with the theory. Some elements involve the establishment of the response, while other involves the disappearance of the response. The basic principles of classical conditioning are unconditioned stimulus, extinction, conditioned stimulus, conditioned response, acquisition, discrimination, unconditioned response, and generalization.

Unconditional stimulus is one that naturally, unconditionally, and automatically generates a response. An example of this principle is when tend to smell their favorite food. This is likely to make one feel hungry. The unconditional stimulus in this situation is the smell of the food. Unconditional response is that response that is not learned which tend to occur naturally in response to the stimulus that is unconditional (Phillips, C, & Soltis, F. 2004). In the case of the above example, feeling hungry as a response top the smell of the food can be seen as the unconditional response.

Conditional stimulus is referred to that neutral stimulus which after being associated with the unconditioned stimulus tend to generate a conditioned response. In case of the above example, if there was a sound of a whistle that was paired with the smell of the food and happened multiple times, the whistle sound is the conditions stimulus. Conditioned response is the response that is learned to previous neutral stimulus. In relation to the example, the conditioned response can be the feeling of being hungry once the sound of the whistle is heard.

Acquisition is the stage of learning when the response is first established and strengthened. It is consistent pairing of the conditioned stimulus and unconditional stimulus that produces the conditioned response. Extinction is when the conditioned response does not occur any more after having a repeated pairing without unconditioned stimulus (Phillips, C, & Soltis, F. 2004). Generalization usually occurs when a small difference exists in the original conditioned stimulus and the presented stimulus. Discrimination is when there is no occurrence of conditioned response when a difference between the original conditioned stimulus and presented stimulus exists.

$12. Operant conditioning

Operant conditioning is that form of learning where responses that are voluntary are controlled by their consequences. Operant conditioning is a theory that deals with how the voluntary response changes over time as a result of their consequences. This theory is also known as Skinnerian conditioning after Skinner having worked out its principles. This is the process in which animals and humans learn to behave in a way so that they can get a reward and thus avoid punishment. The characteristic of operant conditioning is that an organism can emit a response instead of just eliciting the response due to an external stimulus (Hill, G 2001). The key element of this theory is reinforcement. Anything that tends to strengthen the desired response is referred to as a reinforcer. A reinforcer can be a feeling of increased satisfaction or accomplishment, a verbal praise, or a good reward. Reinforcer increases the likelihood of the response that it follows and punishment reduces the likelihood of the response that it follows.

Contribution of theorist

The theory of B.F Skinner also operant conditioning is of the idea that learning is a change function in overt behavior. A change in behavior is usually as a result of the response of an individual to events, which occur in the environment. A response normally produces a consequence like hitting a ball, defining a ward, or even solving a math problem. When a stimulus pattern is rewarded, the person is conditioned to respond. A unique aspect of this theory is that it attempted providing behavioral explanation for a range of cognitive phenomena (Hill, G 2001). The theorist was able to explain the motivation in terms of reinforcement and deprivation schedules.

Application

Operant conditioning has been applied in the clinical setting, in behavior modification. It is also applied in the instructional development like in programmed instruction. This theory has also been applied in the teaching setting, which is in classroom management (mccormick, C & Pressley, M 2006). A good illustration of this theory is training the dog to shake on the command. One speaks the command to shake which is a discriminative stimulus and then wait for the dog to move its forepaws, which is an operative response. After this behavior, one gives the dog a treat which is a positive reinforcer. After a closer distance to shaking the hand, the dog will perform the response which is shaking.

Operant conditioning is applicable in education. The knowledge that people have about the theory has had a huge influence on the education practices (Hill, G 2001). At all ages children usually exhibit behavior. Parents and teachers are behavior modifiers. When a child at the end of the academic year is behaviorally the same, it indicates that the teacher is not doing their job. Children are supposed to learn the meaning that they should produce relative permanent changes because of the experience that they have in the classroom or the school setting.

Principles

The principles of operant conditioning include, shaping, reinforcement, discrimination, punishment, and generalization.

Reinforcement is the process that strengthens the behavior. This includes positive reinforcement. This is making the behavior stronger through following the behavior using a pleasant stimulus. Negative reinforcement is making the behavior strong through talking away the negative stimulus.

Punishment is that process where behavior is weakened thus, unlikely to happen again. Negative punishment is reducing the behavior through a pleasant stimulus when that behavior occurs. Positive punishment is reducing the behavior by using an unpleasant stimulus when that behavior occurs (Nevid, J 2012).

Shaping is a reinforcement method used for teaching new behaviors. During the start, animals and humans are usually reinforced for tasks that are easy, and then perform more tasks that are difficult so that to receive reinforcement. Extinction is eliminating behavior by stopping to reinforce the behavior. In generalization, behavior can be done in more than one situation. Discrimination is learning that a reward will be provided for behavior in just one situation and not another.

$13. Neobehaviorism

This theory is associated with Clark Hull, B.F Skinner, and Edward T. They believed that the keys to scientific psychology were study of learning and focusing on objective observational methods. Neobehaviorism seeks to understand the response and stimulus pattern and also the mediating factors between the response and stimulus (mccormick, C & Pressley, M 2006). Neobehaviorism acknowledge the significance of understanding elements, which are internal to a person. This theory stresses the interaction of the environment and individual. Neobehaviorism emphasize on a process of reciprocal determinism where any of the three elements of the behavior, person, and environment can be influenced or can influence the other two.

Based on this theory, most of the human behaviors are usually learned through direct observation or indirect observation. There are times that learning is deliberate, while there are times when it is adventitious. This means that they just happen without any conscious effort. A stimulus is likely to initiate a negative or a positive response in animals or human (Nevid, J 2012). If a child is used to being yelled at by the parent when they go back home from school, the child will find it unpleasant to avoid going home. On the other side, if the child is welcomed home by the parent with a smile and a hug, he might feel the opposite. From this behavior, the child is either feeling an innermost motivation to go home or he lacks motivation to go home. According to neobehaviorism, the environment, person, and behavior are factors that interact in order to influence learning. An example is, the feedback of a teacher, which is the environment can cause a student to set goals that are higher that is the person and goals are going to motivate the student to put more effort, which is the behavior.

Compare and contrast

Learning in classical conditioning usually occurs by a conditioned stimulus. This is a stimulus that was neutral, but it now draws a conditioned response. The conditioned responses are reflexive or involuntary. Classical conditioning only deals with how a new stimulus comes to control the existing involuntary response (Nevid, J 2012). While responses and reflexes associated with emotions have a huge responsibility in an individual, everyday experience, most of the behavior of a person is voluntary or self generated. In operant conditioning, it emphasizes that learning is achieved when the behavior consequences lead to change in the likelihood of its occurrence. This is contrary to classical conditioning, as the behavior that results from operant conditioning is voluntary and not involuntary.

In classical, conditioning, one is trying to increase the likelihood of the response which is conditioned response to neutral stimulus, the conditioned stimulus. This is through pairing of the stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus that is producing a response that is unconditioned. In the theory of apparent condition, one tries to increase the probability of the conditioned response in the presence of conditioned stimulus through following the desired response with a reinforcing stimulus. It is also possible for one to try and decrease the likelihood of a response in the presence of a stimulus through following the undesired response with a punishment. Unlike classical conditioning, operant conditioning has response consequences. This means that there are punishments or reinforcement contingencies (Nicholas, L 2009). The punishment and reinforcement are contingent or dependent on the response.

In the theory of classical conditioning, the unconditional stimulus usually follows the conditions stimulus during training in spite of whether or not there is the occurrence of the conditioned stimulus. In this case, conditioned response, which is reflexive, is under the control of conditioned stimulus that precedes the response instead of the one that is following it. Acquisition in classical conditioning usually occurs through repetitive pairing of the conditioned or the neutral stimulus with the stimulus that is unconditioned until there is an association which is formed between the two (Nicholas, L 2009). In operant conditioning acquisition occur through continuous reinforcement of behavior that is desired until the likelihood of the behavior recurring has increased.

In classical conditioning extinction occurs through the removal of the conditioned stimulus while in operant conditioning, it occurs through the removal of the reinforcer. The role that the learner plays in classical conditioning is passive while the learner plays an active role in operant conditioning because he or she has to do something in order to yield a consequence. The nature of response in classical conditioning is reflexive since the learner does not have any control over it. The response is voluntary in operant conditioning because the learner has control of the response.

Operant and classical conditioning share most of the basic procedures and principles. It is possible to point out that some of the common principles that are evident in both theories include extinction, generalization, acquisition, and spontaneous recovery. These principles are common to both types of learning. In operant and classical conditioning types of learning, the association between consequences and responses should be made close together in a small amount in order for learning to occur.

Conclusion

Learning can be referred to that process that leads to potential, behavioral change or relatively permanent behavioral change. When people are learning they tend to alter the way they perceive the environment, they way they behave or interact, and the way they interpret the incoming stimuli. This paper has been able to discuss and summarize the comparison of the different types of learning using the different theories. The paper has discussed the way human and animals acquire new behaviors through learning and how the behaviors can become extinct.

Reference

Coon, D & Mitterer J (2010). Introduction to psychology Cengage Learning

Phillips, C, & Soltis, F. (2004). Perspectives on learning Teachers College Press

Nicholas, L (2009). Introduction to psychology UCT Press

Nevid, J (2012). Psychology Cengage Learning

Hill, G (2001). A level psychology through diagrams Oxford University Press

Mccormick, C & Pressley, M (2006). Child and adolescent development for educators Guilford Press

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