1. The middle passage refers to a phase of the triangular trade in which people from Africa were moved to New World during the Atlantic slave trade. Ships left Europe for Africa with manufactured products traded for kidnapped Africans. The slave traders transported slaves across the Atlantic and sold them for raw materials, which were sending, back to Europe to finish the voyage. Companies and investors organized voyages. Caribbean and American traders received the slaves (African). Other countries like Brazil, North America, Denmark, and Sweden among others participated in the trade. The African slaves came from West African countries, west central African and southern Africa.15% of the slaves died at sea. The death rates were high in Africa because of the capturing process and transportation of indigenous people to the ships. The African deaths linked with middle passage totaled 2 million. Portuguese slavers exported slaves from Africa between 1440 and 1460 and they controlled the trade (Bland, 2001).
2. Mammy refers to a source of earthly wisdom who is independent. Mammy image has changed, but the stereotype is still there. Pickaninny refers to black children. The term has been used before to refer to aboriginal Australians. Sambo refers to a person who has African heritage and Native American heritage (Bland, 2001).
3. Du Bois utilized the concept double consciousness to refer to a person whose identity is divided into different facets. He saw double consciousness as a fundamental theoretical model for comprehending psycho social divisions found in the American society. Blacks struggle with different conception of self. The African Americans suffered during the slave trade, and this affected their identity. The African slaves were moved from their home land and separated from their families. The African slaves struggle to define themselves as blacks. They only see themselves through the white’s eyes as they controlled their lives for many years. The identity and values of blacks conflict with values and identities imposed by the whites (Bland, 2001).
4. The fugitive slave law refers to an Act passed by the congress as part of the compromise of 1850 between the south and north. The fugitive slave Act prevented slaves from running away from their owners. The law required fugitive slaves to be returned back to the owners. The Act gave the government power to arrest fugitive slaves. The government pursued the slaves in state and ensured the slaves returned to the owners. The implementation of the fugitive slave law prevented slaves from running away from the owners (Bland, 2001).
5. Slaves and indentured servants were personal property before the civil war. The slaves, indentured servants and their descendants could be sold or inherited like other properties. Indentured servant and a slave differ greatly. Slaves are considered personal assets, unlike indentured servants. Servants are business arrangement and slaves are a state. Slaves remain slaves for life and do not have a chance to be free. On the other hand, servants can be free. Moreover, slaves do not get paid for their services while servants work in exchange for an agreed fee. Servants work based on the period identified (Govenar, 2000).
Sale narrative is an African American literature type created in the middle of the nineteenth century. Slave narrative refers to accounts authored by fugitive slaves. The slaves explore their lives in the south and after freedom. The slaves used the narratives to recount the cruelty of life during slavery and the persistent humanity of slaves as human beings. Slave was a controversial issue in mid 19th century and this led to different kinds of narratives. Some fugitive slaves examined the cruelty of slavery while others examined life after freedom. The slave narratives were fundamental to African American literature as more than 6000 former slaves from Caribbean and North America write an account of the slavery life. 150 were published separately as books and pamphlets. Slave narratives are grouped into different categories. They include tales of progress; tales to inspire the abolitionist struggle and takes of religious redemption. The tales written to encourage the abolitionist struggle or advocate against slavery are the most common as they have a strong autobiographical motif. The most common ones include Frederick Douglass’s autobiography and Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl by Harriet Jacobs (Govenar, 2000).
The advocacy against slavery and tales of progress differ a lot. The tales of progress examined the progress of slavery. The tales of progress examine the challenges slaves faced, how they overcame them and became successful in life. The slavery experience differed from one slave to another and hence the slaves gave different accounts of their life. Booker T. Washington narrative account, up from slavery is an example of the tale of progress. Booker examines his life throughout slavery and freedom. He examines his life from a slave child during the civil war, to the challengers and obstacles he overcame so as to get an education. Booker was born in Franklin County, in Virginia. , Booker experienced problems during the civil war and slavery period like other slaves. Slaves had a miserable life during the civil war and slavery time as they could not get basic needs. The slaves lived in miserable, isolated and discouraging environments as exemplified by Booker. Booker lived in miserable, deserted and discouraging areas. His owners were not cruel like other slave owners. However, he stayed in a 14*16 foot cabin with his mother, brother and sister. Booker learned the significance of naming oneself as a means of reaffirming freedom. Fred men and women reunited with their families.
Freed slaves looked for employment far from their masters and education like other freed slaves. Booker looked for education. Most slaves were not able to get an education because of insufficient facilities and finances. Booker was unable to access education due to lack of money. He did not have adequate funds to finance his education at Hampton Insitute. He struggled to earn adequate money to reach Hampton Insitute and remain in school. Booker claims that this was his initial experience related to the significance of willingness to do manual job. Apart from getting education, Booker helped other salve acquire relevant skills. He established vocational schools like Tuskegee Insitute, in Alabama, to help African Americans and disadvantaged minorities acquire useful and marketable skills. This in turn, improved their living standards. Many philanthropist and teachers helped African Americans and Native Americans get education. In order to be successful in life, Booker combined academic subjects and learning trade. He integrated practical subjects to reassure the whites the importance of educating African Americans. The reconstruction period had a negative effect on blacks as evidenced by Booker. According to Booker, most of the reconstruction projects like education, vocational opportunities and right to vote were developed on a false foundation. This forced him to develop a more sold foundation based on the hand, head and heart (Govenar, 2000).
The tale of progress tells Booker’s advancement and growth after slavery. Booker was invited to give advice to students, establish projects and reform, education. General Armstrong called Booker to Hampton Insitute to instruct and advice Native American men. He spoke about racism against blacks and Native Americans. He also started a night school.
In addition, General Armstrong encouraged Booker to start a normal school for blacks in Tuskegee, in Alabama., Booker proposed a new kind of education for Tuskegee children as the New England education was not sufficient to make them successful. Moreover, Booker gave speeches in different places like the National Education Association and Atlanta exposition. Booker became an effective public speaker after completing school and gave different speeches. He also started a family after marrying. HE married Olivia Davidson and Margaret James Murray. Though Booker was successful, he feared travelling to Europe as he thought people would turn him away because he was successful as an African American. He thought that people did not want to see African American successful. However, he enjoyed the trip. Lastly, Booker became successful after slavery as got an honorary degree from Harvard University. This was the first honorary degree to be given to a black. Therefore, the tale of progress examines the success of African Americans after the slavery and civil war. It examines how African Americans like Booker changed their live through education and hard work (Fisch, 2007).
On the other hand, the advocacy against slavery examines the struggle to end slavery. Many people opposed slavery because of the effect on slaves. Frederick fought for the abolition of slavery due to the problems slaves faced. Frederick Douglass examines his life as a slave in the narrative of life of Frederick Douglass. The narrative of the life of Frederick is considered the most influential literature work that led to the abolitionist movement in early nineteenth century. Frederick experienced many challenges as a slave which affected his life negatively. The relation between the slaves and their owners was cruel as they did not have freedom. Most slaves stayed with their owners because of fear. The slaves got punished for telling the truth. The owners used different methods to punish the slaves such as whipping. Frederick witnessed his aunt being whipped. Frederick suffered after seeing the master whipping the aunt, and he was not whipped as he was very young. Also, Frederick got separated from his mother at a tender age.
Frederick life changes after being send to Baltimore to work for a slave owner. Frederick believed that he would have remained a slave the whole life if he had not been moved to Baltimore. Frederick learned the importance of education in Baltimore and had new hope in life. He learned the importance of reading after hearing Mr. Auld disapproved the teaching of slaves. Slave masters did not allow slaves to be taught how to read so as to control them. However, Baltimore continued to learn and escaped to the north. Frederick was mistreated as a slave as the master sends him to work for a cruel slave breaker (covey). The slave breaker tried to damage Frederick spirit, but he did not give up. At some point, Frederick wished that he would better die than being treated like a slave. This forced Frederick to defend himself after Covey tried to punish him by whipping. Frederick decided not to be whipped anymore. Frederick worked for many masters as he prepares to escape. He succeeded to escape to New York and Massachusetts (Bland, 2001).
Reference
Bland, S.L. (2001). African American Slave Narratives: An Anthology, Volume 1.Grrenwood publishing group
Fisch, A. (2007). The Cambridge Companion to the African American Slave Narrative. Cambridge University press
Govenar, A.B. (2000). African American frontiers: slave narratives and oral histories. ABC-CLIO
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