Health Psychology: A Study of Optimism and Hope on Health
Introduction
Health psychology deals with the study of the roles of emotion to one’s physical health (Snyder, 2000, p67). Emotions have been studied in relation to psychological stress which may cause disease. Mortality and morbidity are the result of inability to control anxiety and depression (Petersons, 2000, pp 45,). Negative emotions such as anxiety, depression, and anger affect the health of an individual while hope and optimism leads to good health, enthusiasm, contentment, joy, excitement, and happiness (Lyubomirsky, King and Diener, 2005).
This research paper will investigate the difference of hope and optimism, and how the two emotions affect health. The paper will review from database materials on the Life Orientation Scale of Scheier, and Carver’s (1957) and Gottgaks‘s Hope Scale (1994). The two tools have been effective in assessing effects of optimism on health. A direct comparison of optimism and hope has been used to measure health outcomes of patients (Pressman and Cohen, 2005). This means that psychological state has an impact on health. Various scholars in different disciplines have suggested that the state of one’s emotions, like optimism and hope, leads to the development of coping mechanisms in times of poor health condition (Pressman and Cohen, 2005).
Hope is referred to as the wishful thinking which causes maladaptive delay and denial in confronting actual life realities such as torture or during sickness (Snyder, 2000, p60). An optimist is a person who strongly wishes that things would go their way. Hope is an action motivator, which affects behavior and thought. It is an emotion that is universal and hard to control (Salovey, Rothman, Dewtweiler, and Stewards, 2000).
The research will also investigate emotional constructs which have been found by previous research. The research will also investigate emotional constructs on hope and optimism to health conditions like neuroticism, depression, extraversions, and social desirability (Cicone, 2003, p 543).
Research questions
The correlation between hope and optimism will be measured against health outcomes, and hope Health outcomes bring about
1. Are psychosocial variables related to health outcomes?
2. Which specific constructs are related to psychological states which are health outcomes?
3. Which particular health outcomes are related to a specific psychological state?
4. If optimism and hope are two different concepts how do they cause the same or different psychological outcome that would result in good health?
Research hypothesis
Health psychology aims at understanding psychological influences that make people remain healthy, become ill, and/or how they respond in times of sickness. Hope and optimism are two constructions believed to positively impact the health of an individual. The test to be carried out is with the aim of distinguishing optimism from hope in the context of health outcomes. Optimism will be accessed by the life Orientation Test while Hope will be tested Hope scale. Other measures that will be included will be depression, neuroticism, social desirability and extroversion with the purpose of ruling out any potential confounds. When the correlated confound effects are controlled there is a high chance that there will be lower score of hope which relates with the reported health in various dimension which may include severity and frequency of illness.
Literature review
Hope and optimism has been known to play a great role in the health of an individual (Bloom, 2006, 36). Positive mind state has for a long time been associated with good ways of successfully coping with hopelessness, despair, and depression which is associated with illness, capitulation and losing a loved one (Cicone, 2003, p 389). For the past three decades, various researchers have been conducted to show the relationships between the state of hope and optimism and health outcomes in comparison to persist illness.
Researchers from various studies have suggested that optimism and hope which are emotional state assists one to cope hard times through positive illusions (Petersons, 2000, pp 45,; Snyder, 2000, p67). With hope a man who is subjected to torture can survive. Though false hope exists, it helps one with wishful thinking, maladaptive delay and denial to confront the reality (Seligman, 2000; pp 45). The New England Journal of medicine clearly state the efforts to connect the positive state of mind as a way a that can be used to help patients recover from illness . This s is the simple power of the will to recuperate.
Various scale of investigation has been used to investigate and show the relationship of health outcomes based of psychosocial variables (Gerontological Society of America; 2005, 134). The methodological perspective links how positive emotional state is related to health based on the reports of the patients and the physical symptoms they feel (McGhee, 2010, p 45). This strategy was however, criticized on the basis that the verbal reports in measuring the positive effect was likely to overlap with other dispositions such as depressions , extroversions or neuroticism. This would therefore, obscure the real meaning and source of physical symptomatology that was reported.
On theoretical level, the focus is on the psychological factors related to the health with clear distinction (Schemer, Carver, Briges, 2001, p 189-216). The theoretical a distinction utilizes various advanced theories in psychology health which aim to clarify the ambiguities on the likely impact of positive mind state to physical health.
Optimism and its effect to health
Various researches have been carried out to show the intense relationship between health and psychological construct. Optimism is among the psychological construct with a coefficient correlation of between 20 to30 (Peterson and Bossio , 20001, pp 127-145).
Hope is generally known as an emotional variable with a cognitive component while optimism is a cognitive variable. The two constructs have significant difference. Optimism is described by Afffleck, Tennen and Apter (2001) as the general believe of positive outcome. They found that the optimists had greater chances of coping with pain and use to effective strategies than the pessimists. Psychological well being is related to good health through a meta-analysis conducted by Scheier, Carver and Bridges. This means that optimists get out of the most challenging times in their lives with little distress than pessimist (Schemer, Carver, Briges, 2001, p 189-216). The coping style of these individuals with to much optimism is different. They face their challenges head on instead of denial. The optimists also take constructive and active steps to come up with a solution. Those with no optimism; the pessimists have high chances of giving up their efforts and fail to achieve their goals (Scheier, C. Carver, M. Bridges., 2001, pp 189-216). Optimism is a component of good health at various states; be it in severity of illness, preventive health, reduction of chance of relapse and in prevention health.
Peterson (2000) has developed optimism measurement based on distinct optimism conceptualism. Researchers have developed dispositional optimism and optimistic explanatory style.
Dispositional Optimism means the global expectation that good things will happen in future. The positive minded people attain their goals with effective strategies of dealing with their challenges. The Self –Report Life Orientation Test by Sheri and Carver (1994) is an important scale of measuring optimism. Optimism can be evaluated based on the personality trait of an individual’s expectations of the future. Dispositional optimism is linked to positive response to medical treatment and good health. Patients suffering from cancer and heart diseases respond well to medical intervention when they have optimism.
Optimistic Explanatory style was first conceptualized by Martin Seligman and his colleagues in 1998. Unlike the broad trait of personality, the optimistic explanatory style gives an explanation of negative experiences and events through attributing the negative cases to specific, transient and external factors. The pessimists would define these negative experiences or events as the major contribution to the cause of their stable internal or global factors which contributes to their own personal failure. The optimist person is more likely to say that his failure of an examination is due to lack of good environment to concentrate in the exam room or the wrong questions were asked. A pessimist, on the contrary, will blame his failure of the exams for being stupid or thinks he is incapable of understanding anything in his academies. Role models like the parents determine the optimism development of their children from an early age.
Hope and health
Hope is the belief of outcomes that are positive in relation to circumstances or events in life. It is an emotion attached to the early trust of an experience that can be influenced by collaborative or external control beliefs. A hopeless person is also pessimistic. Negative attitudes are the key to anxiety and depression. The neurobiology condition created by the negative emotions provides a point to begin in the understanding of the power of hope on ones health. The limbic system functions abnormally as a result of anxiety and depression. This is particularly based on the amygdale a region of the lateral prefrontal cortex and paralimbic system (Carr, 2004, pp 98). The depletion of neurotransmitters is associated with depression particularly noradrenalin and serotonin. Depression also leads to decreases of the efficiency of the neurotransmitter system (Lidddle, 2001). Effective and efficient functioning of the neurotransmitter system is associated with hope and optimism. This involves noradrenalin and serotonin. Not much study has been carried out to confirm this argument.
Abnormal functioning of hypothalamic-pituitary- adrenocortical axis is also associated with depression. This condition leads to cortical overproduction, suppression of the immune system and endorphin secretion depletion. Much evidence in the recent past has shown that optimism and hope leads to the efficient functioning of the immune system (Peterson, 2000, pp 76). Abnormal gamma amino butyric acid binding is associated with anxiety (Liddle, 2001).the binding process leads to reduction in arousal, inhibition and decrees in arousal when faced with anxiety.
Hope according to Professor Rick Snyder (2000) comprise of two elements. First, there is the motivation and agency to utilize the pathways of achieving ones goals. Secondly, is to plan for the pathways despite the goals. Snyder’s theory has been incorporated into cognitive behavior therapy, narrative therapy and solution focused therapy. Patients and clients are helped to develop well defined goals despite of the health challenges they are going through.
Hope and optimism play an important role in ensuring mental and emotional health. The immune system of health, happy and optimist people work better. They have good strategies of solving their problems and good strategies of coping with problems.
Illness can be categorized into acute, chronic impermanent illness and chronic illness. The measurement of patients suffering from various illnesses has been measures with the use of the Hope scale by Gottschalk’s (1994) and life Orientation scale to measure Optimism. The results of such tests on hope and optimism have shown a correlation of one illness and the severity of the heath problem.
Mental wellness
Positive psychology describes the holistic approach on the mental health. This approach has been used to target and define psychological disorders. The focus of positive psychology is on positive strengths emotions and proper mental health. The meaning of life is defined by ones happiness and the satisfaction got from life as a branch of psychology. Health and personal wellness involves the whole being apart from psychological disorder treatment.
Neuroticism
Neuroticism is a fundamental trait of personality found in psychology. A person with neurotics has a great tendency of suffering from negative emotional states. Such individuals are likely to experience anger, anxiety, depressed moodiness and guilt (Mathews and Ian, 1998). In stressful environments, people with neuroticism respond poorly by being threatened by ordinary situations. They are shy, self-conscious and have delayed gratification. Mental disorders such as depression, panic and anxiety are associated with risk factors of neuroticism. Neuroticisms are viewed as a continuous personality trait rather than in distinct dimension. By introducing individuals with neuroticism to hope and optimism programs, they can be able to be taught how to overcome their fears, their self consciousness and improve their level of self-esteem. They can be given the goal to overcome the challenge they face. Penn Optimism Program is one of the effective programs. This in an effective program because programs on solving skills, achieve and working towards self-prophecy and cognitive training is taught among various important aspects (Seligman and Gillham, p 236).
Onset of illness
It is frightening and disorienting to experience illness and the treatment of the illness. Research has shown that it is important to incorporate intrinsic adaptative qualities to a patient psychologically. This is an onset approach that can be done to a patient to psychological prepare him in adjusting to treatment and the consequences of the treatment. Research carried out by psychologists called Irving Janis was with the aim of investigating how patients awaiting surgery responded to treatment. He found that patients who were anxious and fearful suffer great adverse effects from the surgery. Such effects include poor eating habits, pain, urinary retention and vomiting.
Patients who had hope and optimism that they would heal from the surgery had low fear and low anxiety. They could however complain, get upset and angry because of the unexpected pain. After encountering the pain they respond positively to treatment.
Extraversion
Introversion and extraversion is the central human personality. Extraverts are assertive, gregarious, and aim at finding excitement. They are loud and have low thinking while solving things than introverts. Extraversion is the habit, the act, and state of being too concerned with attaining gratification from others. They are talkative and enthusiastic. Extraversion is among the Big Five personality dimensions (John, Donahaue, & Kenneled, 1998).
Experience gratification is correlated with Neurotics/negative affectivity, extraversion/ positive affectivity and agreeable, people with neurotics, agreeableness, and extraversions are aspect that is difficult to express. This has lead to poor outcomes of research due to ineffective intervention. Personality such as openness, extraversions, personality and social-cognitive styles,
Certain personality traits relate to happiness and positive attitudes. Extraversion is genetically influenced which directly confirms that happiness is inheritable, according to the findings of David Lykken and Auke Tellegen (1996). People In faith and hope community have reported being very happy (National OPINION Research Center. 2002)
Social desirability.
In measuring of peoples happiness based of self reports on studies; people cannot be able to actually analyze their lives because of self defense in social; desirability and making judgment. In the measurement of happiness has been done through clinical interviews by use of projective methods , diaries analysis, and through the Thematic Appreciation Test.
Limitations of existing literature
Little research has been done to clearly give the relation between hope and optimism on health. Most of the studies emphasize on the two main categories; the literary works and the philosophical works. They studies emphasize on the spiritual, emotional and existential aspects of hope. This is a small field within psychology that stress on behavioral and cognitive dimensions. There is less wisdom on clinical writings on hope which could give a clue to the psychology of the emotion of hope and optimism.
Optimism and hope in health improvement
Much knowledge and wisdom can be found in philosophical, literary and clinical writings which have considerable information on positive psychology.
Future of the study
Psychologists should find better methods of operation in defining the various constructs related to hope and optimism on health.
Reference
Carr A (2004) Positive psychology: the science of happiness and human strengths Author Publisher, Psychology Press,
G. Matthews and Deary (1998). Personality traits. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press
Pressman S. and Cohen S. (2005). Do positive effects influence health? Psychological Bulletin, 131.
Salovey, P., Rothman, A., Dewtweiler, J., and Stewards, W.T. (2000). Emotional state and physical health. American Psychologist, 55.
Lyubomirsky, S., King, L. and Diener, E. (2005). The benefit of frequent positive thinking: does happiness lead to success? Psychological bulletin,
p 142
Koenig, H and McCullough (2001) Handbook of religion and health Edition illustrated Publisher Oxford University Press US,
The journals of gerontology: Psychological sciences and social sciences, Volume 60Author Gerontological Society of America Publisher Gerontological Society of America, 2005Original from the University of California Digitized Nov 13, 2008, p 134
Seligamn, M and Dillham J (2001) the science of optimism and hope: research essays in honor of Martin E.P. Seligman Publisher Templeton Foundation Press, pages, 1-50
Bloom M (1996) Primary prevention practicesVolume 5 of Issues in children’s and families’ lives ,Publisher SAGE, p 591996
McGhee, P(2010)Humor: The Lighter Path to Resilience and Health, pp 105
Rebecca Jacoby, Giora Keinan (2003)Between stress and hope: from a disease-centered to a health-centered perspective
M. Scheier, C. Carver, M. Bridges (2001) Optimism, Pessimism, and Psychological Well-Being.” Optimism & Pessimism: Implications for Theory, Research, and Practice. Ed. E. Chang. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, pp 189-216.
Bossio, P (2001) Optimism and Physical Wellbeing. Optimism & Pessimism: Implications for Theory, Research, and Practice. Ed. E. Chang. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2001: 127-145.
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