Strategies That Empowers Minority Students

In 1986, Cummins Jim proposed a framework that suggested that every educator is never powerless but, they work under unbearable conditions characterized by oppressions. These are the minority teachers and students who work under oppressive conditions in relation to their work conditions and curriculum. However, Cummins (2000) calls upon teachers to make the right choices in their structural interactions in the classroom and on communication strategies with students on the issue of identity. The educators are capable of making choices that determine their educational and social goals that they aim to achieve with their students. This is because the teachers are responsible for defining the role as they adopt mainly on culturally diverse communities and students. This framework implies that, for students to be successful, educators, in their effort to interact with students, should constantly sketch images that depict the image of the educator’s identities. The image should further depict options in identities that educators highlight to their students, and the society image that educators hope that their students will form and develop.

These images are part of the classroom interactions and are applicable in the way the minorities relate to the society’s power structure. This means that it is essential for educators to make an effort of eliminating discourses that concern underachievement mainly in terms of the deficits of students in both their linguistic and psychological functioning. This is because, such discourses impact negatively on the children’s ability and growth. It tampers with their identity, language, cultural, imaginative, and intellect development. Therefore, effective teachers are those who eliminate the constructs from student’s image, as well as, their own and to the policies that impact on instructions and the curriculum(Cummins 2000, p 20).

2. Bilingual education theories:

Threshold hypothesis:

The additive enrichment principle is also the threshold hypothesis, which is a principle applicable in the language teaching and bilingual development (Cummins 2000, p 23). This is a principle which, examines the process of becoming bilingual and shows how language development may have an impact in the development of learning the second language. Cummins shows that, bilingualism has its own positive effects on the student’s academic and cognitive growth. This is because they contribute to high proficiency levels in both the original and the second language. This means that the children’s proficiency plays a critical determiner in their academic performance.

The ability of the students to maintain the ability in their primary language and high competence level in the second language results to positive effects. Cummins further shows that the negative or positive development in learning the second language depends in how the students perceive the two languages. For instance, to most minority students, they may see that their primary language is prestigious and dominant. This attitude may impact on their ability to learn a second language. Similarly, when the second language is the dominant and prestigious one compared to the primary language, there is high level of a student minimizing the development of the primary language as she or he get exposed to the second language. These are the threshold assumptions within the threshold hypothesis that may positively or negatively impact on the cognitive growth of students in the ability to learn other languages.

Time on Task/insufficient theory:

Cummings (2000) in his time on task theory indicates that there are certain conditions, which will make minority students learn sufficient skills of a second language been one to two years so that they can manage to enhance academically. These students learn the skills without receiving any outstanding support that they had in learning their primary language (Cummins, 2000). The theorist goes ahead to say that the primacy language instruction has a negative impact in the ability of the student to gain proficiency in the second language.

Comprehensible Second language Input:

The input hypothesis is a practice and hypothesis in second language acquisition by Krashed Stephen (1981). The comprehensible second language input address the process by which one learns a second language over time and gains competency in it. The comprehensible language input principle represents the formulae “level I” then proceeded to level i+1. This means that as one continues to use language, he or she gets to understand the language and through the context that the language, what we read and hear, and knowledge in understanding the world.

Linguistic interdependence:

The linguistic interdependence theory by Cummins (2000) is also the iceberg hypothesis. This theory shows the interference of the mother language to other languages learned. The theorist indicates that, though the two languages may appear to be different from one another at the surface level. They are psychologically interdependent to each other. This means that proficiencies involving tasks that are cognitively demanding such as abstract thinking, content learning, problem solving, and literacy are aspects shared across languages. This indicates that, every language in the world has its surface features but, under the surface there are certain features that manifests across all languages. These dimensions required cognitively demanding tasks that are part of a language and transfer across languages. This means that when a student has gained proficiency and knowledge in one language, then this will facilitate the student’s ability to learn the second language. This means that the first language will act as a facilitator in learning the second language.

3. Effectiveness of bilingual education:

A.) Ryan, A (2007) two tests of the effectiveness of bilingual education in preschool. Childhood education. Vol 21, pp 12.

The study compares two groups conducting different test, for determining bilingual effectiveness in preschool. The researcher found out that those students who had received bilingual education at preschool and those who had done English only had an achievement gap. Those who had gained bilingual education were successful in their education performance.

B.) Rojas, E, & Reagan, T (2003) linguistic human rights: A new perspective on bilingual education: educational foundations, Vol 17, and p 15-19.

The researchers urge that the effectiveness of bilingual education needs to go beyond the pedagogical system, to include the fundamental rights of an individual to learn a second language. This is an aspect that should be shared among policy makers, educators, and the general public.

C.) Constance, L (2008) The Educational Effectiveness of Bilingual Education in Burkina Faso. International journal of bilingual education, Vol 11 p 661-677.

The paper examines the new pedagogy in Burkina Faso, after the adoption of the bilingual curriculum in schools. The researchers found out that the bilingual education systems improved the student’s community and academic participation.

$14 Ineffectiveness of bilingual education:

$1A.) Conger D (2010) does Bilingual education Interfere with English-language acquisition? Social science quarterly, Vol 91, p 1103-22/

Conger (2010) found out that students in bilingual education system learn English less quickly compared to those in unilingual education system. This shows the working of negative selection mechanism.

$1B.) Chin A, Daysal, N, & Imberman, S (2012) bilingual education programs impact on limited English proficient students. Discussion paper.

The researchers found out that bilingual education programs do not impact on the scores of standardized test among students who do not use Spanish as their mother tongue language.

Reference

Krashen, Stephen D (1981) principles and practice in second language acquisition. Language teaching series. Prentice-Hall, p 202

Cummins J (2000) Linguistic Interdependence and the Educational Development of Bilingual Children. Paper series, p 60

Chin A, Daysal, N & Imberman, S (2012) impact of bilingual education programs on limited English proficient students and their peers. Discussion paper.

Conger D (2010) does Bilingual education Interfere with English-language acquisition? Social science quarterly, viol 91, p 1103-22

Constance, L (2008) The Educational Effectiveness of Bilingual Education in Burkina Faso. International journal of bilingual education, Vol 11 p 661-677

Rojas, E $ Reagan, T (2003) linguistic human rights: A new perspective on bilingual education: educational foundations, Vol 17, and p 15-19

Ryan, A (2007) two tests of the effectiveness of bilingual education in preschool. Journal of research in child hood education. Vol 21, pp 12

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